Project Section

Cover Projects
      Electronic Astronomical                                                                     113
      Spectrum Analyzer                                                                            114
      Investigation Of The Osage Orange Fruit                                            120
      Peripheral Jet Ground Effect Machine                                                128
First Award Winners At the 1962 National Science Fair-International
      New method of Modulating Microwaves                                            136
      Psychophysiology of Color vision                                                       138
      Microelectrophoresis                                                                         141
      Fungal Ecology of the Tularosa basin                                                  143
      Spot Cycles Of Jupiter and Saturn                                                     146
      Experimental Study of Nuclear Structure                                            148
      Pituitary Physiology studied by Parabiosis                                           152
      Radioisotope Testing Of Nutrient Passage Through Plant Grafts          153
      Research Into Congenital Ectodermal Dystrophy                                157
      Construction Of a Freon Bubble champer                                          158
      Other First Award Winners                                                                161
Other Projects Of Interests
      Wind Tunnel for Rocket Aerodynamics                                              162
      Symbolic Compiler For Arithmetic and Logical Programs                   167

Electronic Astronomical

Robert Fischer next to the display that helped him win a Second Award at the 12th National Science Fair-International. Electronic gear in the center of photo was incorporated with combination telescope-spectroscope in order to provide a means of analyzing and demonstrating the spectrum electronically.

Science Service

Spectrum Analyzer

Robert E. Fischier
The telescope built by Fischer (above, left) incorporated a Dall-Kirkham Modified Cassegrain optical system with a 10-inch primary mirror and 3-inch convex secondary mirror. Instrument mounted on top is the spectroscope. Right: A photograph of the moon taken with the telescope at a low power setting.
 
A five-times entrant in science fairs, Bob Fischer has compiled an impressive list of awards for his work in astronomy, optics, photography, and electronics. His last project and those that led to it is described here in detail, and illustrates the cover of this book. His photographs (Mr. Fischer is also an accomplished amateur photographer) illustrate much of the first chapter.

Starting with an interest in astronomy, Fischer first constructed a 3-inch reflecting telescope. In following years, his projects became ever more complicated and demanding in terms of time, effort, and study. The rewards? A Second Award at the 12th National Science Fair-International, Air Force first award, second place from the Optical Society of America, and a patent on a device for a telescope. The future sees a possible physicist in the offing (Mr. Fischer is now attending the University of Rochester), but who really knows?

My interest in science fairs began in the 8th grade when my teacher suggested that I enter a group project in the local fair with a friend. After much thought, we finally decided on a model of the Mount Palomar 200-inch telescope. Everything went fine, including the purchase of a 3-inch mirror, until we began to do some calculating and discovered that in order to model the optical system of Palomar the entire structure would have to be about 15 feet in diameter and 10 feet high much too large for an exhibit.

Much elbow grease was expended in polishing mirror, plus 75 to 100 hours of time. Alter polishing, it was necessary to figure it by hand. Optical surface was accurate to 1/16th wave length of sodium light, or to about .0000038ths inch.
 
We immediately ruled out Palomar and I suggested that perhaps we could build a small reflecting telescope. My friend didn't agree, however, and I bought him out and finished the project. Although it was crude and amateurish, it did win an Honorable Mention and increased my interest in astronomy and optics. Through a course in mirror-making at the Hayden Planetarium (New York City), I learned the basics of mirror grinding, polishing and figuring, and entered a 6-inch reflecting telescope in the next science fair. I won the optical award (an Argus camera) which proved to be the beginning of my interest in photography. I was able to apply this interest to astronomy and optics.

Realizing the importance of the spectroscope (a device used to identify elements present in a light source), I decided to combine both a telescope and a spectroscope in one exhibit for my next project and show spectra of the sun and moon (they proved identical due to the fact that the moon's light is reflected from the sun). For this exhibit a 6-inch reflecting telescope, a prismatic type spectroscope, plus many photographs, charts and other data I won the major award for the Borough of Queens and was able to participate in the National Science Fair at Hartford, Conn., where I won a Fourth Award in addition to several others. As an added bonus, I also got an idea for my next project.

The new project was in the field of astronomy, optics, and photography with electronics added. It was a 10 -inch Newtonian reflecting telescope with a larger spectroscope and a light-amplification system. With this I could not only demonstrate the spectrum optically, but electronically as well.

The light amplification system consisted of a photo-multiplier tube which could give a current amplification of approximately 1,500,000. This, in conjunction with the spectroscope, had a highly sensitive spectrometer which could instantaneously analyze the spectra of many sources.

After winning a major award for the Borough of Queens, I entered the nationals at Indianapolis where unfortunately (or perhaps fortunately!) I received no awards. I did meet a U. S. Air Force colonel whose inspiration over the years has proved more valuable to me than any prize. We have corresponded ever since, and he has given me many suggestions and ideas and the incentive to build one more project but only one, for I was then in my senior year at high school

Illustrations courtesy Robert E. Fischer

An optical diagram of Dall-Kirkham Modified Cassegrain. This setup gives both a large aperture and long focal length, and permits the eyepiece to be at the base of tube (near primary mirror "P"). The system is quite difficult to construct, despite its advantages, and is rarely found in amateur circles.
 
Since one of the rules of the National Science Fair is that each year's project must be different from the last, I decided to elaborate and build the ultimate in both a telescope and a spectroscope. The optical system was a Dall-Kirkham Modified Cassegrain which gives both a large aperture (10-inch primary), a long focal length (approximately 80 inches), and permits the eyepiece and viewing portion to be at the bottom or base of the tube. This optical system is probably one of the most difficult for an amateur to construct and quite rare in amateur circles.

I would never have attempted such an optical system were it not for the fact that I was a member of the Optical Division of the Hayden Planetarium and thus able td use the optical building and testing facilities there in addition to the large lathes, drill presses, etc. The chairman of the Optical Division, Mr. Richard S. Luce, watched over and guided me in the job of grinding and polishing the 10-inch primary mirror and 3-inch convex secondary mirror. I estimate that the grinding and polishing took me at least a few months, and many, many hours were spent perfecting the optics of the instrument.

The primary mirror had to have an optical surface which was accurate to approximately 1/6th of a wave length of sodium light or about .OOOOO38ths of an inch. About 75 to 100 hours were spent polishing the primary mirror on the machine at the Planetarium, after which it had to be figured by hand. There were many tests to be performed, including the Focault test which shows the exact shape of a mirror to within millionths of an inch.

Since the secondary mirror is a convex mirror (see diagram of optical system on page 93) and thus cannot be tested by standard optical tests, I decided that the only way I could finish my project in the limited time available was to rely on a certain polishing stroke which would give me a perfectly spherical surface (in the case of a Dall-Kirkham Modified Cassegrain, the primary mirror is a 65 per cent corrected parabaloid and the secondary is a perfect sphere).

With about a month to go before the science fair, I had completed the optical phase of the telescope and now had the problem of making sure that the fiberglass tube ordered from California arrived in one piece. Next came the construction of a "pier" on which the instrument would stand and then the construction of the spectroscope, the mirror mount and a few other back-breaking jobs.

I was fortunate to secure a war-surplus 58-degree prism for the spectroscope which was perfect for such an instrument. Considerable planning and machining had to be done for the spectroscope, the guide scope and the spotting scope. The spectroscope itself is capable of oscillating the spectrum in front of a slit which sends the light into the light-amplification system. I also acquired a war-surplus sextant gear housing with vernier control and was finally able to finish the spectroscope.
Various test lamps were used to test the spectroscope part of the project, producing spectra such as that above. Analyzed were helium, hydrogen, mercury and argon. A spectroscopic analysis of the sun made through telescope gave final check.

At right is a graphic representation of the lines present in the light emitted by an element. This type of analysis was done using the electronic equipment incorporated in the project, and supplemented the optical samples like that one above.

With the fair rapidly approaching, I still had a great deal of unfinished work and spent many precious hours at the Planetarium machining the mirror-mount which weighed about 10 pounds. Last minute things had to be done the spiders, star-diagonals, eyepieces, painting, etc. Next, I had to create charts, photographs, and electronic spectroscope analyses using the instrument itself. For this I used test lamps such as helium, hydrogen, mercury, etc., and obtained both optical and electronic spectra of these sources. It worked perfectly, and I was able to obtain electronic spectroscopic analyses of the sun, mercury vapor, hydrogen, argon and helium.

The project won a New York City major award and once again I went to the Nationals this time in Kansas City, Mo. The task of crating the instrument for shipment to Kansas City was a tremendous job; almost comparable to building it.

After setting the instrument up in the exhibit area in Kansas City, a catastrophe developed a short in the electronics system. But this was soon corrected and the instrument worked like a charm for the judges the next day. I won a Second Award, a first prize from the Air Force in the field of optics and photography, and a second place from the Optical Society.
Photos by Robert K. Fischer
The Air Force award was a set of encyclopedias and a trip to Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in Dayton, Ohio. Highlight of the trip was a "weightlessness" flight similar to those used in training the astronauts. This was an experience I shall never forget. Robert E. Fischer. ·

Investigation of the Osage Orange Fruit
 
A curiosity in the commonplace, in this case the Osage orange fruit, sent Miss Vicci Richards to a tie for First Award in the girl's biological sciences division at the 12th National Science Fair.

Now a student at Western Michigan College, Miss Richard's ambition is to become an elementary teacher and to encourage children in science. Her own example is a good one as her project demonstrates.

Miss Richard's display at the Science Fair shows in graphic detail the procedures followed and the results obtained. The tests were conducted with baby chicks since they are not fastidious eaters.

As a child, I was fascinated each au-. tumn by the appearance of the large, unusual, and abundant supply of hedge apples (Osage orange) which appeared along road sides and tree rows. I can recall being told that they were poisonous, turned one's skin yellow, and left a rash if one touched them.

In looking for a science research project, I determined to find some undiscovered or overlooked material which could possibly help solve future food problems for man or for the animals he uses. My thoughts turned to the Osage orange. I decided to find out if any food value was present in a usable form, and if the various superstitions which I had heard were true. A thorough review of all literature available gave very little information concerning the problem. Material was found dealing with the characteristics of the tree and uses of the wood, but only one investigation covering the Osage orange was located, and this had been done over 40 years before.

No practical use of the fruit had ever been recorded. It had been found, however, that cattle would eat it if forage was short. This would, reportedly, cause the animal to reduce or entirely cease milk production. It had also been observed that squirrels would eat the fruit, probably seeking out the food in the seed, not the pulp.

Hedge apples were collected in October and stored for future use. Some were placed in a home basement, but the temperature was too warm there and they soon decayed. Others were left outside; these remained in usable condition. It was then discovered that they kept best under refrigeration at 4° C.

It was first necessary to determine the possible toxicity of the fruit. The fruits were cut into sections and allowed to dry at 37° C. for one week. After drying, they were ground and mixed with water, producing a 10 per cent solution. The mixture was filtered and 1 cc. of the filtrate was injected into five mice. A control mouse was injected with distilled water. There were no ill effects from the filtrate injection, proving that the Osage orange was not poisonous in the dosage and amounts injected. This test was repeated five times at two-day intervals with the same results. Preliminary tests were next conducted to determine the general food value. A sugar test was conducted by using Feh-ling's solution. A positive reaction was indicated by a brick-red color. The sample was then tested for starch by adding iodine.
 
The result was negative. From the protein test, using nitric acid, a positive reaction was indicated by a yellow color. There was also a positive reaction to the fat test which was performed by adding ether. The hedge apple left an ash when burned, indicating the presence of minerals. The pH of the fresh fruit was taken to determine whether the hedge apple was acidic or alkaline. A pH of 7 resulted, indicating the material to be neutral.

A powdered sample, however, yielded a pH of 5.7, indicating the presence of a weak acid.

The first step in preparing a workable food was to cut the Osage orange fruit into small pieces.

Photos courtesy Indiana State College

Pieces were dried at 37° C. for one week before a final drying at 74° C. in a laboratory oven.

After oven drying, it was possible to grind fruit into a powder, use it with grain, in pellets, etc.
 
Toxicity was checked by injecting a filtrate derived from the fruit into mice. No ill effects!
 
The moisture content of the ripe fruit was determined by weighing sample fruits, sectioning and drying them, and then weighing the dried samples. Calculations showed the fruit to be 75 per cent water. These preliminary tests showed the general composition, but it was felt that a specific analysis was needed. Because the school laboratory was not adequate for conducting a complete analysis, a dried composite sample containing all parts of the fruit was submitted to Commercial Solvents Corporation, Terre Haute, Ind., to determine the exact percentages. The final report showed that the sample contained 10.75 per cent protein, 2.95 per cent moisture, 23.48 per cent fat, 4.45 per cent mineral, 7.93 per cent fiber, and 29.4 per cent sugar.

After learning the exact composition, the preparation of animal feed was begun. Because of the tough, sticky, milky texture, and because of the insipid taste of the fresh fruit, it was necessary to prepare the material in another form if the test animals were to consume it and make satisfactory progress. The first step tried was boiling the fruit. This process was not successful. The next attempt drying and powdering the entire fruit provided a workable substance.

The first feeding tests were performed on white mice. Mixtures of 25 per cent, 50 per cent and 75 per cent hedge apple, combined with grain, were fed. The test showed that the taste was undesirable, and the animals refused to eat the mixtures.

Since powdered eggs have a more pronounced odor and taste than ground grain, a mixture of hedge apple and powdered egg was more agreeable. The mice ate enough to survive, but not enough to show appreciable weight gain.
The next tests were conducted on guinea pigs. Because of their gnawing habits, the best form for their consumption is pellets. The various powdered mixtures were mixed with water, rolled, cut, and placed in the oven to dry. Some success was indicated, but the taste problem was still very evident. To overcome the taste, rabbit pellets containing alfalfa hay were ground and mixed with the Osage orange powder in various proportions, and then re-formed into pellets. These were eaten in larger quantities, but not enough to show a great increase in weight.

The final feeding tests were conducted with the use of baby chicks. These were chosen because the chicks grow rapidly in the early weeks of development, because the nutritional requirements were known and could easily be supplied, and because chickens are not as fastidious eaters as other animals.

Three groups of chicks were used. The first group of five, a control group, was fed a commercial chick starter. The second group contained five chicks on a ration of 50 per cent hedge apple, and 50 per cent chick starter. Five chicks were also used in the last group, which was on a diet of 66 per cent hedge apple and 34 per cent chick starter.

Results of the tests conducted proved much more successful than any of the previous attempts, even though the chicks on the Osage orange diets did not gain as much as the control group especially during the early days of the test. After apparently becoming accustomed to the taste of the fruit, the chicks ate better and began to catch up with the control group. The control group gained an average of 161.08 grams during the 20-day test. The group fed on the 50 per cent Osage orange diet gained an average of 118.82 grams, and the group on the 66 per cent Osage orange diet gained an average of 100.65 grams. No chicks were lost, and all members of each group were active and in apparent good health. The feathers of the groups fed the

Osage orange fruit showed a slight yellowish color.

Since the Osage orange analysis showed a very high nutritional value, it was decided to investigate the possible uses in human nutrition as a food supplement or expander for wheat flour.

Cookies were made using 50 per cent hedge apple and 50 per cent flour, and following a standard cookie recipe. The cookies had a good texture, a pleasant odor, and a strange, but palatable, taste.

Since the cookie preparation was successful, bread was baked using 25,per cent hedge apple and 75 per cent flour along with the other major ingredients. The bread had a coarse texture, a tempting odor, but a strange taste. It was darker in color because of the hedge apple and resembled whole wheat bread.

Seeds were extracted from ripe fruit, washed, dried and roasted by a process similar to that used in processing peanuts. After adding salt and butter, the seeds proved to be pleasantly edible.

Because of the relatively high percentage of sugar present in the Osage orange, it was thought that it could be used as a source of ethyl alcohol. If the fermentation was successful, the other nutrients would still be present after the production of alcohol, making it possible to use the residue as animal feed.

Seeds were dried and powdered. Oil extracted proved comparable to other vegetable cooking oils.
 
The Osage orange could also be used as alcohol source. Here, a fermentation filtrate is distilled.

In this test, yeast and water were added to freshly-cut Osage orange fruits in a 3-liter flask. The flask was put on a shaking machine to better mix the viscous material. The mixture was allowed to ferment at 37° C. for five days. The following reaction occurred:

Sugar + Yeast Alcohol + Carbon
Dioxide + Energy

After the fifth day, the mixture was filtered and the filtrate was distilled at 80° C. The alcohol yield was satisfactory. The residue from the filtration •was placed in the oven at 75° C. After it was completely dried, it was ground for animal feed.

Previous references and the analysis had shown that the seeds of the fruit were high in fat content. Because of this, steps were taken to remove an oil from the seeds. Hedge apple seeds were collected, dried, and ground into a fine powder. Ether was added to the powder to dissolve the fat. After mixing, the mixture was filtered. The filtrate was left uncovered to allow the ether to evaporate, leaving the oil. The oil was a light lemon color and had an insipid oily taste. The physical properties showed that it was a semidrying oil. The oil-free cake contained 10.80 per cent protein. This is 1.8 and 1.5 times more than the percentage of protein in linseed or cottonseed meal. The oil was used for preparing popcorn and compared favorably with other vegetable oils for use in cooking.

After working with the Osage orange fruit for an average of two hours per day for six months, I felt that a limit had been reached as to the research that can be conducted in a high-school laboratory. The results show that there are definite problems involved in using the Osage orange fruit in nutrition which have not been solved through my project. However, certain promising factors have been uncovered which indicate that further research on a technical scale by nutritional experts might well be worthwhile.

The results of my project can be summarized as follows:

1. Osage orange trees could be grown in large quantities to the fruit-bearing stage in less than ten years. They could be grown on land now considered useless, such as abandoned strip mines, where they would not only be valuable for fruit production, but could also help to prevent soil erosion. Further research is needed to determine the exact areas in the United States, other than their natural habitat, where they could be grown.

2. The fruit of the Osage orange is nontoxic in the amounts injected and fed in this research. It is not responsible for animal deaths as some superstitions indicate. There is some danger from choking if the fruit is eaten raw because of its texture and because of the sticky liquid it contains.

As part of the project, the Osage orange was also fed to guinea pigs. Because of their gnawing habits, the powder was made into pellets (see above). Taste was a problem, and other substances were mixed in to overcome it. Chicks were better eaters.
Mixtures of various percentages of powdered fruit were fed to mice and chickens (see left photograph). Chicks on Osage orange did not gain as much as a control group when test started, but began to catch up, apparently becoming accustomed to fruit.

Final preparation of pellets was to dry in oven (see right). Among conclusions reached at end of project were: Osage orange is rich in food values, it is non-toxic in amounts fed. it could be source of alcohol and oil can be extracted from seeds.
 
3. The fruit is rich in food value proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and minerals. More research is essential to determine vitamin content.

4. A taste problem exists in the powder made from the fruit which needs to be overcome. The chicks that grew well on the hedge apple diet did not eat as much as the members of the control group. This is thought to be due to fruit's taste.

5. The Osage orange fruit could serve as a raw material for ethyl alcohol production because of its high sugar content. The residue from the fermentation could still be processed for animal foods.

6. An oil can readily be extracted from the seeds which has properties similar to those of typical vegetable oils.

7. The possible effects on milk production need further investigation.

8. The yellow color given to the chicken feathers indicates that tests should be performed on the meat of the animals fed for possible changes in taste and color. Vicci Richards

Peripheral Jet Ground Effect Machine

Starting from a magazine article, applying years of model building experience and researching available data led Robert Himes to a Second Award and U.S. Army and Air Force first awards at the 12th NSF. Now in college, Himes, a resident of Dayton, Ohio, plans to go on to a career as a projects engineer. His project, illustrated on the cover of this book, was a step in the right direction.
 
This project was undertaken to gather information and data on the theory, design, construction, development, and testing of the peripheral jet ground effect machine. A ground effect machine is a unique vehicle that travels on a bubble of air instead of conventional wheels.

Prior to actual construction of and experimentation with working model ground effect machines (abbreviated GEMS), I planned a development and construction program. Such a schedule was important since it enabled me to compete in various science fairs over a period of months, and still continue to improve my display between these fairs. The first stage of this timetable involved the gathering of information from organizations involved in working with GEMS.

Photo by Simon Nathan

Robert Himes displays two propulsion units used in his Second Award winning ground effect machine.

Gems utilize a bubble of air on which to travel instead of wheels; diagram above shows how bubble is formed. The problems inherent in this type of vehicle include performance, control, and stability.
 
Since the peripheral jet GEM was a relatively new concept in transportation, published material concerning it was impossible to secure locally. For this reason, I wrote to more than 30 colleges, government agencies, and aeronautical firms for information. Almost all of these organizations responded and provided me with more than sufficient starting material. From these pamphlets and engineering reports I tried to understand existing theories of performance, control, and stability. The basic mechanics of ground effect phenomena were investigated and vehicle configurations studied. After evaluating this material, I began my own work with the construction of a two-dimensional flow stand.

This device was designed and built to record data on a simulated GEM under static conditions. With the flow stand, the effects of varying values for parameters (such as discharge jet thickness, discharge angle, and angle of incidence of the craft to the ground) upon base pressure, performance and stability could be studied. Air flow patterns could be observed and recorded. In addition, the effects of varying height on performance and stability could be checked. Many parts needed to construct this test stand were found in junk yards, salvage outlets and in the home. When recording data from these tests and those on the model vehicles, graphs were used extensively to simplify and to help visualize the phenomena.

The two-dimensional flow stand in operation during an air flow visualization test, using tufts to show forced air currents under the base of craft. With the device, design factors are tested.

After evaluating data from flow stand tests, I built my first small model vehicle. This 13-inch octagon-shaped peripheral-jet GEM was designed from the data from the two-dimensional flow stand, existing published theory, and several years of model airplane experience. Tests on this model were conducted over land, water, and snow. All studies on the craft were non-technical and did not involve performance and lifting data. Desiring more involved experimentation I then began to design a larger model.

Again calling upon the theories, flow stand studies, and experience from the small model, I designed and constructed a 24xl9-inch model equipped for deeper investigation of performance, control and stability phenomena. From the 24xl9-inch craft I managed to record additional data on performance, stability, and its novel tilt control arrangement. Large amounts of data were gathered from the vehicle and, having gained considerable experience in the design and construction of GEMS, I began to work on my last model vehicle which was to be specifically for tests while in forward motion.

This octagon-shaped model vehicle was used as a test model before larger rectangular version was built. Propulsion unit is model plane engine.

The final stage of my development program was a large 36x24-inch working model with two engines, one for lift and the other for forward propulsion. This model GEM was a so-called "full boat" version with instrumentation for recording jet exit air speed, forward speed, base pressure differentials, internal air pressure, and height. In the last GEM, unde-sired characteristics of the previous models were removed. For example, stability was almost perfect and control and propulsion was much better with the second power plant system used in the last model.

Final testing of the 36x24-inch vehicle concluded my peripheral jet ground effect machine development program. During this period of time I had also built a display for exhibition that presented the work and aims of the project in as simple a manner as possible. The display itself contained a considerable amount of material with particular emphasis placed on the use of graphs and pictures to illustrate the basic phenomena. Another extremely important point to be given special emphasis was the practical value of the peripheral jet GEM in military, commercial, and everyday use, since it can traverse almost any type of terrain. Robert Himes

Photos by Robert Himes

Photos by Robert Himes

A bottom view of the 24xl 9-inch model showing the air jets around base. From tests, enough information was gathered for design of last model.

The 24xl9-inch model vehicle as seen from the top. Louvers for control are located around perimeter. This was second of Himes' three models.
 
The 24xl 9-inch vehicle hovering in its test bed. Craft is supporting a total of 7 lbs. at a height of ¼ inch (note the hanger weights underneath).

Through the use of counterbalancing weights the vehicle could be tested above its normal flying height. Under its own power with no external forces acting on it. the craft could hover at 2½ inches and travel at a speed of about 10 mph.
 
The 24xl9-inch craft displaying its tilt method of control and propulsion. The hanger weight is used here to record the exact force exerted by the craft at a certain angle of incidence.

Seen here is the bare skeleton of the 36x24-inch vehicle before the silk covering was applied. Once the silk was in place, the whole model vehicle was doped, and the two engines installed. One can be seen in the center of the model craft, placed there for positioning and fitting.

Photos by Robert Himes

The photograph at right shows the 36x24-inch craft in the test stand with both engines running. A forward force test was in progress with the vehicle suspended in flying position.

At left the 36x24-inch craft is shown in the test stand with just the center lift engine running. Note the two pressure tubes at the side of the vehicle running to the manometer tube. These were for the purpose of checking and recording pressures to determine the relative force of the vehicle under various test conditions.

New Method of Modulating Microwaves
 
The 1962 National Science Fair held in Seattle, Wash., brought a First Award to Henry Lester, a junior at Teaneck High School, Teaneck, N.J. His highly sophisticated project, a microwave modulation system which utilizes the plane of polarization of a signal on which to impress information, also won the U.S. Air Force electronics award.

A basic element of radio, television, or any other form of "wireless" communication is a system of modulation, the goal of which is to transfer information from a transmitter to a receiver by impressing this information on some characteristic of a high-frequency "carrier" signal traveling from the transmitter to the receiver. Amplitude modulation, commonly known as AM, accomplishes this purpose by varying the amplitude of the carrier signal as a function of the information to be transferred; frequency modulation, or FM, by varying the frequency of the carrier signal.

The author's project was the design and construction of a new system of modulation, "polarization modulation." Since all electromagnetic waves including light, X rays, radio waves, and microwaves consist of an electric field and a magnetic field at right angles to each other and at right angles to the wave's direction of propagation, all electromagnetic waves possess a plane of polarization, defined as the direction in which the electric field points. In polarization modulation this plane of polarization is made a function of the modulating information at the transmitter. When the modulated wave reaches the receiver, a polarization-sensitive antenna produces an output whose amplitude depends on the plane of polarization of the incoming signal. Thus, an amplitude-modulated signal is fed to the amplifiers of the receiver.

Henry Lester
This photo, taken at Howard University in Washing, D. C shows polarization-modulation transmitter with the transmitting antenna in foreground. Lester also built up a home lab for under $50.

At left is Lester's display at 13th NSF. His microwave modulation system has some advantages over AM and FM systems, and a working demonstration shows distortion to be a negligible factor.

After the initial development of this concept for a modulation system, the first step was to obtain a device which would vary the plane of polarization of a wave passing through it in accordance with an electrical modulating signal. It was learned that the Faraday rotation, a shifting of the plane of polarization of a light wave as it passes through a magnetic field, occurs with appreciable magnitude for microwave energy propagated through a magnetized ferrite. Since this was the only effect applicable for a modulation system, the project had to be limited to microwaves.

The author wrote letters to several commercial producers of microwave components, and the Airtron Company was generous enough to furnish ferrite samples and a special non-polarization-sensitive antenna feed for the transmitter. The National Science Foundation summer science institute at Howard University afforded an opportunity to pursue laboratory research on the project. By judicious shopping and careful use of spare parts over a period of two years, the author was able to equip an adequate home laboratory for a total cost of under $50.

Theoretical and experimental development of the modulation system was toward the goals of lowest possible distortion and highest possible percentage of modulation. The first requirement meant that the received signal had to be as nearly as possible a linear function of the modulating signal; the second meant basically that the distance over which an intelligible signal could be transmitted was to be made as great as possible. Using accepted mathematical relationships as a base, equations were derived which predicted the received signal as a function of the amplitude, angle of rotation, and ellipticity (amount by which the locus of the direction of the electric field differs from a straight line) of the transmitted signal. In addition, it was shown that minimum distortion would be obtained when the modulating signal at the transmitter was superimposed on an initial angle of rotation equal to 45 degrees.

Experimental measurements of amplitude, ellipicity, and angle of rotation of the transmitted wave were made as a function of current in the solenoidal coil which provided the magnetic field for the ferrite. The values of received signal predicted by these measurements and by the derived relations agreed closely with experimentally obtained values of received signal.

The completed modulation system has several advantages for microwave transmission over a line-of-sight path. Future plans for the project include an investigation of multi-channel transmission and further improvements of polarization modulation utilizing different ferrites. Henry Allen Lester

Psychophysiology of Color Vision

Long-time science fairer Frederick Dombrose, a Third Award winner at the 11th NSF, took top money at the 13th annual event with a First Award and a U.S. Army award. His project, Psychophysiology of Color Vision, was evolved over three years of study at Sylvania High School, Sylvania, Ohio. He plans to enter college to become an ophthalmologist.

In the psychophysiology of color vision may be thought of as the study of the processes and mechanisms whereby the discriminative reactions of color vision are brought about. The project itself is a compilation of three years of research on the anatomy, physiology, and photochemistry of the visual processes.

My first inclination to enter into a scientific endeavor of this nature arose as a freshman. Upon seeing a movie on television concerning an eye operation (removal of a cataract) I decided to dissect a cow eye and explain the functions of some of the structures.

As a sophomore I decided to continue along the same lines but elaborate more the physiology and histology of the structures involved in vision. At that time I had but a vague idea of the procedures involved in making microscope slides, so for six months I studied the technique from lab technicians in a hospital laboratory. I became particularly interested in photomicrography from the hospital photographer during this time.

As I continued my study my interest grew, and with it, my curiosity as to the processes involved in vision. Ultimately, my investigations carried me into the photochemistry of the visual processes whereupon I became interested in electrophoresis and chromatography and, in addition, the use of the spectrophotometer as a means of studying visual pigments.

With the added interest and momentum I gained at the National Science Fair I continued my studies at a science institute during that following summer. There I studied various color vision phenomena and known metamers characteristic of normal physiological response to color in human color vision. Through my junior year I studied many and various theories of color vision, so much so that I desired to postulate one of my own. With this idea in mind, I set out to uncover everything there was to know concerning the human perception of color (if that is possible).

Science Service

Frederick Dombrose beside his display at 13th NSF-I. Project involved a study of the mechanisms involved in color vision. Faced with both anatomical and physiological problems, Dombrose broke subject into three parts: anatomy, neurophysiology. and photochemistry (left).

Since it was necessary to learn how to make microscope slides, Dombrose spent six months in a hospital laboratory learning the techniques. His project was the result of three years of work which began when in the 9th grade.

In my senior year I began an investigation on the electrical activity in the vertebrate eye. Through many hours of experimentation and trips to research centers at universities I became familiar with the methods employed in recording the electrical activity in the eye as well as their meaning. Actually, the real task lay ahead in correlating all known data and conclusions built up by researchers and substantiating them to serve as a basis for broader abstractions and generalizations. My completed survey of material showed: (1) the existence of gaps or discontinuity indicating incomplete development of verified knowledge within the field; (2) existence of untenable knowledge within the field requiring fresh study and reworking; (3) indications that there were possibilities of extending the inquiry beyond the limits to which adequate investigation in the field had so far progressed.

As previously mentioned, I attended a summer science institute where I became especially interested in the so called "Land Theory of Color Vision," and a phenomenon I discovered in the Journal of the Optical Society of America "The Greenish-Yellow Blotch." I shall eliminate any discussion on the Land color vision phenomenon since it simply is "just" a phenomenon, and explainable physiologically. The latter phenomenon, as presented in the OSA Journal, was approached in a totally mechanistic manner . . . which, in a way, aggravated me. To explain the phenomenon physiologically I attempted to correlate it with one discovered early in the 18th century (which was also unexplained) . To explain how I uncovered a color vision phenomenon dating back to the early 18th century I used the references of journals, books, etc.; upon looking up this material I would then utilize their references, and again repeat this cycle.

To return to the phenomenon at hand: In my own laboratory experiments I discovered new effects producible through variations of these phenomena which confirmed theories by earlier investigators and allowed me to present some new concepts in nerve-impulse-transmission. In particular: the idea that nerve impulses "seem" to be able to be transmitted from one fiber to another other than through a synoptic junction. Also important is the concept that unmyelinated nerve fibers (at least within the vicinity of optic activity in the eye) glow with an objective light characteristic to the stimulus inducing the activity.

The project which I have undertaken to explain here covers the anatomy, neuro-physiology and photochemistry of the vertebrate eye. It includes the explanation of an entoptic phenomenon in the human eye and an original theory of color vision. It is very improbable that my theory is correct after 300 years of research on the subject, but the important thing is the presentation of new knowledge and the coordination of old into a tenable theory which might serve as workable material for new investigations. Frederick A. Dombrose.

Micro electrophoresis

Careful reading of scientific magazines resulted in a rewarding project for Bette Jane Wyckoff, a resident of Quakertown, Pa., and a graduate of the Quakertown Community High School. Her First Award at the 13th NSF topped other awards she has won for her scientific endeavors at local and regional fairs. Miss Wyckoff plans to continue in her chosen field by becoming a chemist.

My work in electrophoresis began initially in 1960 and continued into 1961 using paper as a supporting medium. During the course of my reading, my attention was drawn to the so-called "subcomponents" of several serum protein fractions; also, to the use of media other than paper. This led quite naturally to my experiments with other supporting media in the separation and staining of lipoproteins.

The electrophoresis method of analysis is based upon the principle that proteins in solution at pH values above and below their isolectric points migrate in an electric field toward the pole bearing a charge opposite to that of the protein. Protein molecules of the same kind move at the same rate and form sharp boundaries in the media employed.

I succeeded in separating the various fractions of serum proteins and lipopro-teins using starch and agar. Starch proved to be superior to agar in every respect with the exception of the difficulty encountered in mounting the finished, stained pattern. Clear, distinct protein bands were achieved on the starch medium and fair separation achieved on the agar. Great difficulty was encountered in obtaining separation of serum lipoproteins. I experimented with several dyes and finally obtained resolution through the use of a pre-staining method with Sudan Black B as the fixative stain. In most instances the lipoproteins could be identified.

In the January 1962 issue of Scientific American I noticed an invitation made by Distillation Products Industries to write for a preprint of an article written by L. Ornstein and B. J. Davis dealing with the subject of "Disc Electrophoresis." Their work was performed in the Cell Research Laboratory of the Mount Sinai Hospital in New York City. I obtained a copy of their article, thinking their work might contribute to and help in the work I had been doing using starch and agar.

The use of acryl amide gel fulfilled all the purposes proposed by my experiment. Serum proteins were qualitatively separated. I worked out an original method for the separation and staining of lipoproteins. This was possible using the theory submitted by Ornstein and modifying the procedure as set forth by Davis for the separation of serum proteins. Difficulties encountered in attempting to stain separated lipoproteins using starch and agar led to the use of pre-staining with Sudan Black B in combination with separation in acryl amide gel.

The serum protein patterns and lipoproteins obtained with the gel were clear and distinct. More bands or discs were obtained than with other methods employed. The gel is superior to starch and agar in that it is strong, is easily handled, and lends itself to amazing reproducibility insofar as patterns are concerned. The alpha and beta lipoproteins were easily detected using the gel. A third, and sometimes fourth, somewhat diffuse band was usually seen.

The use of acryl amide gel will find many rewarding applications. Although quantitative differences in the six sample sera used were not within the scope of this experiment, the method is not limited to qualitative separation. Equipment is now being made to measure quantitatively serum proteins separated in this manner. This equipment should be able to be used to measure accurately the amount of lipo-protein present. It is now known that many more kinds of proteins are present in human serum rather than the five or six generally believed to be able to be separated by electrophoresis. Very slight, subtle changes in any one or several of these proteins might very well be the forerunners of disease.

The greatest advantage of disc electrophoresis lies in its speed and accuracy. The entire procedure takes from two and a half to three hours while the time necessary for the separation on starch and agar is eight to ten hours. In conclusion, it is safe to predict that the most rewarding applications of disc electrophoresis still lie ahead. Bette Jane Wyckoff ·

Fungal Ecology of the Tularosa Basin

Fungi found in soil samples taken in various parts of New Mexico yielded new and unusual species and a new antibiotic as described below by Maryce M. Jacobs, a First Award winner at the 13th NSF and a finalist at the 11th NSF. Miss Jacobs, a resident of Las Cruces and a graduate of the local high school, also won a first award from the American Institute of Biological Sciences. She wishes to become a medical doctor.

I^o date there has been no experi-. mental research done on the microorganisms in the soil of the Tularosa Basin. Microorganisms participate in a very dramatic way in determining what type of higher plant life can exist in a given area. The higher plant life, in turn, determines the type of animals (herbivorous and/or carnivorous) that inhabit a region. A complete ecological study cannot be accomplished without knowledge of the microrlora.
Because of numerous groups of micro-flora present in the soil, this study was limited to the fungi. The purposes of the project were to:
1. Isolate and identify fungi common to the entire area.

2. Determine whether there were fungi unique to the soil of a specific area.

3. Determine whether there were changes in fungi (numbers and types) due to elevation and/or plant association.

4. Determine what the unusual fungi were.

Seven soil samples were selected at six levels of elevation (Soil I 8400 feet; Soil 11 7400 feet; Soil III 6700 feet; Soil IV 4800 feet; Soil V and VI 4100 feet; Soil VII 4050 feet) in the Tularosa Basin. Also, from each area in which the soil was taken a sample of the vegetation of the immediate region (pine, scrub oak, juniper, creosote bush, tumbleweed) was collected.

To isolate the fungi, each of the seven soils was saturated with water and placed in layers in petri dishes. Between these layers were placed pieces of straw (oat and that from the vegetation of the region) which had previously been sterilized. Three of the oat and other kind of straw were removed from each of the seven petri dishes after one, three, and five weeks of growth in the soil. Each of these periods of growth was labeled "first pull," "second pull," and "third pull" respectively. The straws were rinsed, cut, and placed on agar in the Petri dishes.

In regard to my first objective, 37 fungi were identified, 23 of which were identified to species. Two fungi, Pythium and Fu-sarium, were found to be common to all soils, all straws, and all pulls. Nine fungi appeared in traces in all soils, on different straws, and in different pulls. These were Gleosporium, Aspergillums, Sclerotium, Tri-chothecium, Streptomycete, Alter aria, Curvularia, Phoma and Tetracocco-sporium.

In regard to my second objective, nine fungi appeared to be common to specific soils for growth. An example of this was Cunningham Ella which occurred in both types of straws after three and five weeks of growth in Soil II. It was not present after one week of growth, nor could it be identified in any other soil. From this I assumed that it was a slow growing fungus and quite selective in its host.

Results showed several fungi which exhibited changes apparently due to elevation and/or plant association. One such fungus was Stachybotrys. This microorganism was present only in the soils of higher elevations, occurring more frequently on the oat straw than the straw of the region from which the soil was taken. Since this fungus appeared in higher elevations where there was much vegetation, I assumed it readily attacked vegetation and decayed it.
In regard to my fourth objective, one fungus was found that, according to data of known species, could not be identified. This was a black Penicillium which grew on oat straw in all three pulls, but at no time on the vegetation from the region of Soil VII which was White Sands, New Mexico. Spore measurements were taken and the closest known species was found to be Penicillium Nigerians. The newly found species of Penicillium was then identified as Penicillium nigrisporum.

An additional unusual situation arose with the identification of an edible mushroom in Soil VI (white soil of Alkali Flats). Being the dominant fungus of Soil VI, it grew in all pulls and on all straws. This organism created a break in the apparent trend of the other six soils to contain 12 to 15 different fungi. Because of the mushroom, only three to four other fungi could exist in the area. Preliminary work has been done exploring the possibility of an antibiotic being extracted from this mushroom of the genus Coprinus. Past results have made such a condition feasible. Further experimentation, however, is being carried out in conjunction with the antibiotic. Maryce Jacobs ·
Science Service

A collection, classification and display project, "Fungal Ecology of the Tularosa Basin" yielded Maryce Jacobs a First Award at the 13th NSF. Her research work was inspired by her high school adviser.

Spot Cycles of Jupiter and Saturn

Richard Falwell's study of clouds on Jupiter and Saturn as presented at the 13th NSF. The result of years of observation, the project attempted to show that cloud life depends on heat from the sun.

Science Service

Over 60 feet of cloud analysis graphs were made by Falwell. Each spot that reappeared was analyzed by determining average life span and plotting changes in intensity in three steps. Life was recorded in days.
 
Four years of hard work, with one thing leading to another, won a First Award for Richard Falwell, 17, of Bethesda, Md. Here, he describes his experience with telescope-building and astronomy the years of observation necessary to formulate the conclusions presented in his project. No newcomer to science fairing, Falwell has been winning awards since 1959, and was a finalist at the 12th NSF. In addition to his First Award at the 13th NSF, he was the winner of NASA's space science award, the first award of the Optical Society of America, and a U.S. Navy Science Cruiser award.

This year's project summarizes my interest in astronomy for the past four years. My interest had its start when I built a 6-inch reflecting telescope when I was in the 7th grade. About six months and $50 were put into the 'scope. Soon after the completion of the 6-inch, I started on a larger one a 12-inch 'scope nearly four times as powerful. I finished the big one during the last part of 9th grade. A big consideration on the second 'scope was money the $400 was earned doing odd jobs for neighbors and relatives.

Photos above and left, below, by Richard Falwell

Above is Falwell's big 12-inch telescope used to make the observations of Jupiter and Saturn. The guide 'scope mounted on the side is an earlier science fair project the 6-inch telescope that first stimulated the author's interest in astronomy. Falwell's choice of a future career? Astronomer.
 
This year for the science fair I summarized and displayed my research on Jupiter and Saturn. My first project (8th grade) told how to make a 6-inch telescope and showed the techniques and results of amateur astrophotography. The second project a year later showed how to make a 12-inch telescope and explained the research I planned to do with it. Last year's project, the third, was a study of the cloud belts and currents with their rotation periods on Jupiter. That project, as this year's "Spot Cycles of Jupiter and Saturn," was a study made through observation.

For more than two years I was out in the back yard nearly every clear night making pencil sketches of the planets. This type of research was a lot of fun; it was easy and could be done whenever convenient. The techniques were not all original, but the relationships I proposed and tried to prove were my own. These relationships were "discovered" simply by comparing observations of Jupiter with those of Saturn and then with known facts about these planets and their atmospheres.

Astronomers often discuss the things that affect the clouds and atmospheres of the giant planets. Some say the sun and its heat are entirely responsible; others say heat from the interior is an important factor. In my project I tried to prove that the sun is the answer. I did this by comparing the life spans and intensity changes of clouds with the amount of solar heat they were subjected to. Using simple averages and proportions I found that the average cloud's life span is dependent on the temperature of the atmosphere; or in other words, the hotter a cloud is, the shorter the time it lasts.

This simple idea may be proven with years of work in the future, but the important thing is that my project was something that could be done cheaply and without too much outside knowledge. Similar methods may be used in the future to learn new things or explain old problems concerning the planets and their origin. Regardless of the future usefulness of my projects, I would do them all over again just for fun. Richard Falwell

Experimental Study of Nuclear Structure

An interest in nuclear physics, highly sophisticated homemade equipment, and three years of hard work resulted in a project that gathered a fist full of top awards for Donna Hayes, a resident of Toledo, Ohio, and a graduate of Maumee Valley Country Day School.

In addition to her First Award at the 13th NSF, she was named one of the 40 top winners in the 1962 Westinghouse Science Talent Search, won a U.S. Army award and an Atomic Energy Commission alternate award. Miss Hayes, now 18, plans to enter college to become a professor of nuclear physics.

I first became interested in nuclear physics when my 8th grade science teacher, Mr. Erwin Feltz, discussed the atom in class. From that time on nuclear physics has been my major interest and the study of it has occupied the greater part of my spare time.

Three years ago I began the construction of the first stage of the apparatus of which my science project now consists. This first stage was a diffusion-type cloud chamber and an accompanying electromagnet. The second stage, coming a year later, was a Van de Graaff linear electron accelerator, and the third stage, built this past year, a Freon-I3BI bubble chamber.

To my physics teacher at Maumee Valley Country Day School, Mr. Thomas Read, I owe much of the credit for the successful operation of the latter two pieces of constructed apparatus and especially for helping me to achieve the background understanding necessary to conduct the research that I have done with them.

The three pieces of equipment, the cloud chamber, the bubble chamber, and the accelerator, and their accessories, have been used to study nuclear reactions produced in the two chambers by the electron beam from the accelerator.

The operation of the diffusion-type cloud chamber is based on the principle that a volatile liquid, when placed in the warm upper region t>f the chamber, will diffuse down to the cooler lower region owing to the lower vapor pressure in the lower region. Condensation occurs in the lower region and, in a small sensitive region near the bottom of the chamber, the air is supersaturated with the volatile vapor. When a charged particle passes through this sensitive region, it ionizes the vapor and causes dense condensation to occur along its path leaving a visible record of itself. These visible cloud tracks reveal many of the characteristics of the particles which produce them.

The cloud chamber was constructed from a glass battery jar. The top is covered by a circular metal lid in the center of which there is a glass window to allow for photography. Felt pads soaked with methyl alcohol are attached to the inside of the lid and the structure is kept at room temperature. The bottom of the chamber is a metal floor which is in direct contact with a dry ice coolant chamber. This floor is covered on the inside with black velvet to facilitate viewing of the tracks. An electrostatic sweep field is provided in the chamber by a 90-volt battery.

The operation of the bubble chamber, another nuclear detecting device, is based on the principle that some liquids, when superheated, are subject to bubble formation due to ionizing radiation. The bubble chamber liquid is subjected to a high pressure at which its temperature is above its boiling point but it cannot boil due to the pressure. This is the superheated state. When this pressure is released, there is an instant during which the temperature of the liquid still exceeds the boiling point without bubble formation. It is during this brief period, a few milliseconds, that the bubble chamber is sensitive to ionizing radiation.

My bubble chamber is circular, 6 inches i.d. and 3½ inches deep, with stainless steel body and plexi glass windows on both the top and bottom. The liquid pressure is built up by a movable diaphragm which is actuated by a Barksdale Crescent solenoid valve. Nitrogen gas is used to actuate the valve and Freon-I3BI is the liquid used in the chamber. Freon was chosen because of its many safety factors and because with it the chamber can be operated at room temperature and at a pressure of only 300 p.s.i.

The electron accelerator is a .4 MEV machine. The power to accelerate the electrons is provided by the negative high-voltage terminal of a Van de Graaff generator. The particles are accelerated in a 30-inch Pyrex accelerator tube. At the Van de Graaff end of the tube is a TV electron gun which serves as an ion source, and at the other end is a small copper attracting screen bearing a strong positive charge. The tube is evacuated to 108 mm of mercury by a mechanical backing pump and a glass oil diffusion pump. Negatively charged copper bands located along the outside of the tube produce an electrostatic field which focuses the electron beam and point-to-plane resistors divide the voltage stress equally along the tube.

During experimental operation, either the bubble chamber or the cloud chamber is placed between the poles of my 800 gauss electromagnet and the electron beam is directed into that chamber. Photographs are taken of the reactions which occur in the chambers and these are analyzed mathematically to determine the speed, mass, and energy of the particles involved. The major factor involved in these analyzations is the radius of curvature of a particle's path due to the influence of the magnetic field on it. Although my accelerator is only a .4 MEV machine, it produces many particle collisions well worth studying. Such things as conservation of momentum and kinetic energy may be determined, and certain aspects of Einstein's theory of relativity may be verified. The air in the cloud chamber may be replaced by different gases to induce more interesting reactions and because the bubble chamber combines the continuous operation of the cloud chamber with the dense target medium of a nuclear emulsion, it readily lends itself as an instrument to study high energy cosmic rays. There is a wealth of knowledge to be gained from work with apparatus such as mine and a good deal of fun can be had in the process. Donna Gene Hayes•·
 
Sample experiment photographed by Miss Hayes was set up as follows: cloud chamber placed between poles of 800 gauss electromagnet; 300 watt light source; camera with close-up lens; electron accelerator. Observations: a thin, almost straight, electron path is observed passing out of accelerator tube and traveling along a mean path of approximately 4 cm before collision. After the collision, two wider electron paths were observed to fork off in different directions. No third particle was seen. A mathematical analysis, not reprinted here, was included.

Pituitary Physiology Studied by Parabiosis

Extensive reading and talking to medical researchers helped Miss Harper formulate her idea one that required much research and learning of necessary lab methods.

Science Service

Vicki Harper, 16, a student at Leonia High School, Leonia, N. J., found the idea for her project in scientific journals. Operating procedures, necessary for complex experimentation with live rats, were learned in a laboratory and practiced until perfected. The result? An original theory concerning hormones. Miss Harper hopes to become a medical doctor.

This experiment is designed to show the reciprocal interchange of hormones, via the blood stream, between the pituitary and reproductive system of the rat.

Parabiosis is a method of surgically connecting two animals so that there is an exchange between their circulatory systems at a capillary level. Parabiosis of gonadectomized female rats to hypophysectomized female rats was used to study the hormonal relationship.
If a total gonadectomy, or surgical removal of the ovaries, is performed in an adult female rat, the hormone balance between the pituitary and ovaries is upset. The lack of ovaries, resulting in nonpro-duction of ovarian hormones, causes the sex-accessory genital organs, e.g., the uterus and fallopian tubes, to regress to an almost infantile state.

If a total hypophysectomy, or surgical removal of the pituitary, is performed in an adult female rat, the resulting absence of hypophyseal stimulation on the ovaries will result in atrophy of the sex-accessory organs to an almost infantile state.

When a gonadectomized female rat is parabiosed to a hypophysectomized female rat, there is a crossover of hormones between the two animals.
 
Normally, estrogen is secreted by the ovaries, and has a checking effect on the pituitary production of FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) which is responsible for follicular growth within the ovaries. In the gonadectomized parabiont, without estrogen to inhibit its secretion, an excess amount of FSH is produced. Although there are no ovaries in the gonadectomized rat for the hormones to act upon, it does cross over to the hypophysectomized animal, where it causes abnormal follicular growth. Enough LH (luteinizing hormone) , secreted by the gonadectomized animal's pituitary, also crosses over to cause the secretion of estrogen in the hypophysectomized rat's ovaries. This estrogen causes marked hypertrophy in the uterus of the hypophysectomized animal, which without outside stimulation, would remain atrophic. Since most of the estrogen crossing over from the ovaries of the hypophysectomized rat is inactivated in the liver because the rate of crossover is slower than the rate of inactivation, the uterus of the gonadectomized parabiont remains atrophic.

By weighing the reproductive organs of the parabionts and comparing them with each other and with those of hypophysectomized and normal control rats, this interchange of hormones may be studied. Further study of the interchange may be done by cutting microscopic sections of the hypophysectomized parabiont's ovaries, and staining them with either a hemo-toxylin and eosin stain, or a periodic acid, Schiff, and hemotoxylin stain. By studying these slides under a microscope, the effects of hormonal stimulation on the cells of the ovary may be seen. Vicki Lynn Harper •

Radioisotope Testing of Nutrient Passage Through Plant Grafts

Robert Timme demonstrates homemade geiger counter for Harry S. Traynor. assistant general manager for administration of U. S. Atomic Energy Commission (1.). Timme also won AEC first award.

Geiger counter built by Timme was used to determine the amount of isotope absorbed by plants and to find the amount of time necessary for the radiation to travel throughout the plants tested.

Robert Timme

Robert Timme, 17, a resident of Houston, Texas, wants to become a research biologist as his First Award winning project demonstrates. A biology teacher provided the inspiration for his research work which also won a first award from the Atomic Energy Commission. He is a student at the Jesse H. Jones High School, Houston.

The purpose of my experiment was to test certain elements as they travel through different types of plant grafts in order to determine the movement and behavior of those elements. The elements tested are two which are essential to plant growth, phosphorus and calcium. In order to follow their movement, radioisotopes of phosphorus 32 and calcium 45 were allowed to enter into the plants at different regions.

By pruning the tops of young tomato plants, lateral shoots were forced which were then grafted to other plants. The two following types of grafts were employed:

1. Grafts of normal angle, the normal direction of growth.

2. Grafts of reverse polarity, reversal of the normal direction of the offshoot.

The radio phosphorus and radio calcium were allowed to enter the plants either through the roots or through the leaves of a grafted branch. Autoradiograph were then made of the plant after a period of 48 hours, in which time the isotope moved throughout it. These autoradiograph are sheets of sensitive film which are placed next to the plant and exposed by the radiation in it, thereby giving a picture of the element's movement.

It was found that when phosphorus 32 was absorbed it was carried to all parts of the plant, no matter where it entered. Calcium 45 was carried only in one direction depending upon where it entered the plant. If it entered the roots it traveled upward; from the leaves it traveled downward.

Traveling from the roots, it would not pass into a graft of reverse polarity. From the leaves, it would not travel into a normal plant graft. In each case the calcium would have had to make a radical change in its direction in order to pass into the graft.

Two types of grafts: Left photo shows normal polarity graft; "A" is scion (grafted), "B" is stock (non-grafted). Second photo shows reverse polarity graft; "A" is scion, "B" stock. Third photo is an autoradiograph of Ca-45 traveling from roots; "A," scion of reverse polarity graft, "B" stock. Last is an autoradiograph of P-32 traveling from the roots; "A" is scion of reverse polarity graft, "B," stock.

Robert Timme
 
It had to be determined whether or not a graft opposite to the normal direction of growth transpired as much as a normal graft 'when the leaf area was the same. This factor affects the amount of isotope taken in. To do this, I built a glass device called a poto-meter which measures the amount of water taken in by a transpiring branch. The device operates by letting an air bubble travel through a capillary tube which brings water to the leafy branch. By measuring the time it takes for an air bubble to travel a known distance, it is possible to determine the amount of water consumed by the branch. With the potometer it was determined that a grafted branch (either reverse or normal polarity) is as active as a non-grafted branch if the surface area of the leaves is approximately the same. This was found to be true because the water consumption was the same in both cases.

In connection with my project, I built a geiger counter in order to determine the amount of isotope absorbed and to insure that there was no contamination of the plants. It was also used to determine the amount of time necessary for the radiation to travel throughout the plants tested.

I encountered a number of problems in carrying out my experiments. The first of these was the problem of the grafting of the plants. My first thoughts were that the plants should be placed in excellent heat and light conditions. Actually the grafts were more successful when they were placed in a moderately lighted area until the initial shock of the graft was past. In grafting, I had to be very careful to insure that the wax used in sealing the grafts was not hot enough to damage the tender plants.

Much experimentation was also necessary before the autoradiograph were made of the plants. It had to be determined how long the film should be exposed in order to have a clear picture with the level of radiation given off by the isotopes. I found that the average time necessary for exposure was approximately four days. Robert H. Timme

Research Into Congenital Ectodermal Dystrophy

Miss Williams' presentation traced inheritance of dystrophy in two families and included a display (r.) of her original findings and conclusions,
 
Studies of inherited dystrophy in humans led Melodie Williams of Chateau-gay, N. Y., to a new theory of the causative factors and a First Award at the 1-3th NSF. A veteran science fairer, Miss Williams has been winning awards since 1958, and was a finalist at the 12th NSF. She plans to become a genetics and biochemistry professor.

This study was conducted for the purpose of increasing medical knowledge about the inherited human condition known as congenital hydrotic ectodermal dystrophy, and to arouse medical interest in discovering the cause of this defect. It began with a revision of a report written by Dr. Howard R. Clouston in 1929 and proceeded from there using modern genetic and biochemical methods.

Congenital ectodermal dystrophy is characterized by dystrophy of finger and toenails, or absence of them, and by sparsity or absence of hair. Also, there are various skeletal changes such as thickened tables of the skull, heavy occipital pro-truberance, clubbed fingers, and prominent jaw. In addition, there may be an orange-like skin appearance, deeply colored eyes, and pigmented spots on knuckles, knees, and elbows.

The first of six steps in carrying out my project •was to make a survey of two family trees of individuals affected with the condition, and the degree of affection, to determine mode of transmission of the defect, present frequency, and whether or not it is increasing or decreasing in intensity.

Next, a survey of the medical histories of both affected and unaffected members of the family was made to ascertain the diseases which occur with greater frequency in these affected members as compared with the unaffected members of the family.
 
The third step was a study of the genetics of these populations for the purpose of linkage studies with eventual determination of the chromosomal locus of the gene responsible for the condition, and separation of pleiotropic expressions of the dystrophy gene from possible linked genes.

The next task was a comparison of this condition with the mutation Naked in mice to determine the usefulness of such animals in research on the condition (observations of growing mice and skin transplants between Naked and Normal mice inbred for 32 generations heir to establish non-hormonal cause of Naked mutation) . A chemical analysis of urine of affected individuals was made to shed more light, if possible, on the initial chemical sequence responsible for the condition (urine chromatography’s, tests for phenyl-alanine, homogentisic acid, sulfates. The last step was plans and arrangements for more extensive biochemical tests, i.e., sweat electrolytes, blood grouping tests, biochemical analysis of skin, etc.

The whole of this project hinged on the cooperation of the people actually affected with the dystrophy, and the assistance of their doctors in persuading them to submit to tests and questioning. Utmost tact was necessary, as these people are very sensitive about their defect, and have experienced many social injustices as a result of ignorance about their condition.

Results of my study include a new theory of inheritance for the gene, a possible discarding of Naked mice as research subjects in the condition, and a theory for the cause of the condition. I made use of a three-poster panel in presenting my discussion on the dystrophy and illustrated my talk with colored slides I have taken of various expressions of the dystrophy in children. Melodie Macleod Williams ·

Construction of a Freon Bubble Chamber

A bubble chamber of original design that does the same job at a fraction of the cost of other versions was the project of Leonard Joeris, Jr., a First Award winner at the 13th NSF. Now 16 and a Senior at Ann Arbor High School, Ann Arbor, Mich., Joeris' choice of career is that of a physicist.

The field of particle physics is of special interest to me, so when each member of my physics class was required to choose a research project for the year, I decided to build a bubble chamber.

The bubble chamber is the eye of the particle physicist. In it the comings, goings, and interactions of subatomic particles becomes visible as a string of bubbles in a photograph. Obtaining these photographs is not simple, however. Bubble chambers used in research today are expensive and complicated instruments. They range in size up to 72 inches and in cost up to approximately $2 million dollars. Duplicating one of these would be prohibitively expensive. What I have done is to retain the principles of, and requirements for, operating a bubble chamber and, through an original design, built and successfully operated an instrument that does the same thing as the expensive instruments at a tiny fraction of the cost.

As is true with the cloud chamber, which the bubble chamber has largely replaced, the paths of ionizing radiation in a bubble chamber become visible as tracks, as opposed to counters such as the Geiger-Muller, Cerenkov, and differential counters in which the passage of a particle is recorded only as a "click." Because the bubble chamber's sensitive volume contains a liquid rather than a gas as in the cloud chamber, a particle is about a thousand times more likely to "hit something" on the way through. This is quite important because much more can be learned from a collision than could ever be deduced from the track of a particle passing right on through with no interaction. Another factor in favor of the bubble chamber is that it can be resensitized for the next picture much more rapidly than the cloud chamber. This has been done in some chambers at a rate of up to ten pictures per second.

To understand the problems in designing and building a bubble chamber, one should understand the way it works. Very simply stated, it is as follows: In the chamber is a liquid under pressure and near its boiling point at that pressure. The pressure is then dropped suddenly in approximately 3 to 8 milliseconds. The pressure and temperature depend on the liquid being used and whether the chamber is a so-called "clean" or "dirty" chamber. Various liquids may be used with approximate operating temperatures and pressures determined by a formula set forth by the inventor of the bubble chamber, Dr. Donald A. Glaser. At the new pressure the liquid is in a highly superheated state for a finite time and, if at this time ionizing radiation is present in the chamber, boiling commences along the path of the radiation in the form of a string of bubbles due to the ionizing of the atoms in the liquid along the path. These bubbles grow at a tremendous rate from 0 to .2 cm. in 5 milliseconds in my chamber. The pressure rebuilds rapidly after an expansion, both from vapor given off in spontaneous boiling at the gaskets and at rough spots on the chamber -wall, and from the rapidly growing tracks. As the pressure rebuilds to a certain point, a jet of vapor in conjunction with a pulse of high pressure shoots into the chamber through the connecting tube. It spreads and quickly deforms the tracks beyond recognition. The time lapse between decompression and desensitization is, depending on the chamber, 5 to 40 milliseconds. The picture must be taken in this time with an exposure of 1 millisecond. The tracks cannot be seen visually. Also to be taken into account is the fact that the temperature must be controlled to a l°F. to insure accurate results.

When undertaking a project such as this with limited funds and equipment, cost and simplicity must be considered as primary factors.

Freon 115 (C2C1F5) was chosen as a liquid because its operating temperature, pressure, and cost seemed most reasonable for my purposes.

The mechanism by which the camera is triggered, the expansion system, the heating system, and the over-all compactness of the instrument are original designs. The total cost of the project was less than $60. Approximately 500 hours were spent in research and in designing and building the instrument. Leonard S. Joeris Jr.

Science Service

A $60 bubble chamber (larger versions cost up to $2 million) won a First Award for Leonard Joeris at the 13th NSF. Results he obtained in experiments with the instrument were verified by physicists.

Other First Award Winners

In addition to a First Award, Gary P. Wulfs-berg (I.), received an American Chemical Society alternate award for "Discovering New Compounds of Chromium and Hydroxylamine." Wulfs-berg, graduate of Washington High School, Cedar Rapids, Iowa, plans to enter college, study chemistry to work in field.

"Derivation of the General Form of Divisibility Functions for Types of Moduli," a project in pure mathematics, brought a First Award to Charles L. Dryden, 17, of Falfurrias, Texas. A graduate of the local high school, Dryden plans to continue his studies in mathematics. A course in number theory inspired winning project.

A curiosity about the ability of fish to hear sounds led to this project, "Investigation of the Hearing Ability of the Brown Bullhead," conducted by Lewis Haberly, 17, of Severance, N. Y. He determined fish hearing by implanting electrodes in the auditory areas of the brain, detecting auditory nerve impulses and by investigation of structure of the internal ear. Haberly, also a 1962 winner of the $6,000 Westinghouse Science Scholarship, plans to enter college this year to become a research biologist

Wind Tunnel for Rocket Aerodynamics

A fascination with rockets and missiles was the incentive for a Fourth Award winning project by Douglas Elder, a graduate of Sandia High School, Albuquerque, N. M. As part of his report on his wind tunnel project, Elder describes some of his experiences with amateur rocketry. After winning the award at the 12th NSF, he entered college where he is studying to become a mechanical engineer in the field of aerodynamics.

Aerodynamics is the science which . treats the motion of air and other gases and of the forces acting on bodies in motion through air or on fixed bodies in a current of air.

In the study of aerodynamics, I put the principle of relativity of motion into practice by the use of my wind tunnel. This principle may be stated as follows: The force exerted by air on a body does not depend on the absolute velocity of either, but only on the relative velocities between them. In a wind tunnel, the objects to be tested are held stationary and high wind velocities are made to pass over them. By building a wind tunnel, I could virtually flight test new rocket configurations while they were standing still.

Although a model made to perfect scale flies in a wind tunnel under nearly the same conditions as a full-scale rocket in the air, I have found that the air flows related to the model and those related to the full-size rocket are not the same. A true relationship hardly ever exists due to the fact that the forces on a model are less than the forces on a full-size rocket. Because of these discrepancies, it was necessary to build full-scale test rockets to get a true indication from flight test.

The beginning of my studies in rocket configuration design was due to my interest in rockets and missiles. My first rocket, fired in 1955, was designed with about 50 per cent fin area, and it proved to be aero-dynamically inferior. Six years later, however, I was able to launch aerodynamic test vehicles at great altitudes flying at supersonic speeds with no fin area. They were subject to areodynamic control by vanes extending to the exhaust stream from the walls of the rocket motor, and guided by vernier engines extending from the rocket body.
 
This great improvement was due to the development of my subsonic single return wind tunnel. I found that there are two basic types of wind tunnels in the subsonic range. The first is called an "open circuit" wind tunnel and has an open jet, draws fresh air from the atmosphere, and discharges the air once more. The second is called the "closed circuit" wind tunnel and has a continuous path for the air.

The first problem was to determine which type of system would be the most efficient for my experiments. I reasoned that all my testing would be done in a limited area, and the air stream from an open circuit tunnel would be troublesome. For this reason, the most common type of closed circuit tunnel, the single return wind tunnel, was constructed. It can, however, be changed to the open circuit type by removing the right corner.

Throughout the designing phase, my two goals were to build a wind tunnel that would produce the necessary air speeds and one that would be small enough to be used as a science fair exhibit.

The first step was to lay out a 3Ox48-inch rectangle the maximum space allowed for a science fair exhibit. The corners were made semicircular, gradually decreasing from 16x16 inches to 3x5 inches. The return and diffuser section of the tunnel were designed in this particular shape for two reasons. The first and primary reason was that the tunnel had to swing around so that the air could move from the motor section through the text section and then continue back to the motor section. The second reason for this particular design was to increase the velocity of air from the motor section to the test section.

I used a ½ hp electric motor from a table saw which gave me a 3450 rpm power plant that could move a large volume of air. The motor was enclosed in a tube with only Vs-inch blade clearance around the propeller.

The third and last step in the designing phase was the test section. This was made to the maximum length I could allow. I was able to get 120 cubic inches of test area quite sufficient for testing components, parts of rockets, and instrumentation for the models. The instrumentation used in the wind tunnel was 21 multiple manometers (15 wall manometers and six model manometers), pitot-static tube, temperature gauge, and smoke testing.

Blast-off! Shown in perfect flight is one of Elder's rockets wind tunnel helped him improve designs.

Completed wind tunnel is shown in the photograph above. Instrumentation includes 21 multiple manometers, pitot-static tube, and temperature gauge.
 
A side view of the tunnel showing the diffuser section. The device had to be constructed to fit within the small confines of a science lair display.

Wind tunnel test section and manometer arrangement are shown here with components under test.

As a result of experimentation, one rocket design appears to produce longer trajectories, higher speeds, shorter flight times, and greater accuracy than ballistic types. This type of rocket is launched down range (horizontal), and when the main thrust of the rocket engine has cut off, it goes into a supersonic glide. Instead of following a normal ballistic trajectory, the rocket is supported by wings while momentum pushes it forward.

A second type of rocket I produced was the result of more than five years of work. There are no fixed guide fins on the body. Extending into the rocket's exhaust stream are four small blocks or vanes. These vanes spin the rocket in flight giving it a stable forward motion.

Extending from the body of the rocket are four venire engines of small thrust used to obtain an accurate trajectory. With these, the rocket is guided while under power flight.

The real value of my curiosity and interest in the field of rocketry •was the motivation to learn basic scientific principles and to become familiar with the scientific method of dealing with a problem. The main purpose of my -wind tunnel and rocket testing was to experiment with different kinds of new rocket configuration designs to find which are the most efficient and aerodynamically sound, and to put these designs to practical use. Douglas Elder

Photos by Douglas Bide
 
Above firing is supersonic supported trajectory rocket which is subject to lift by wings after the engine cuts off.

A landing after a down-range flight of over two miles at supersonic speeds. This is a prototype of the rocket being fired in top photo.

Symbolic Compiler for Arithmetic and Logical Programs

Honors seem to come naturally to Robert Strom, 16, a Second Award winner at the 12th NSF with a high speed compiler he designed for use with an IBM computer. A graduate of the Bronx: High School of Science in New York City, Strom built his first science fair project at age 9 and won an award. The following five projects, culminating in SCALP, were also award winners, and this last project also took first awards from the U.S. Army and Air Force.

Additional praise for SCALP came from IBM in a letter which stated that "the maturity and sophistication shown by this example is beyond that of the majority of professional programmers. . . Your system ranks among the best which have been created for the IBM 650."

Strom, now attending college, plans to become a mathematician.

My research was motivated in June, 1960, when I found existing compilers for the IBM 650 to be awkward, slow, and inefficient. After 18 months of application, I created a new compiler, SCALP (Symbolic Compiler for Arithmetic and Logical Programs).

This article summarizes my efforts in developing a workable compiler for the IBM 650 which could eliminate present disadvantages in other compilers for low-speed digital computers by increasing speed and improving ease in card handling.
Since moderate and low-speed computers are of low cost and have wide application in the areas of science and business, it is important that efficient compilers be available for these computers. Compilers for all types of stored-program computers are useful since they translate general mathematical statements and logical flow charts into machine language programs, thus eliminating effort in programming and coding on the part of businessmen and scientists. On high-speed computers, the problem of efficient compilers has been solved somewhat satisfactorily by the development of the universal FORTRAN language, and to a lesser extent by ALGOL. However, no adequate compiling system has been developed for any lower speed computers.

At present, the compiler used most frequently for the 650 is called FOR TRANSIT. FOR TRANSIT employs FORTRAN'S free style of input statements (i.e. not divided into specific word blocks in specific columns), but at only 20 to 30 characters per card. A FOR TRANSIT program consists of arithmetic statements involving addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and exponentiation; specification statements permitting the use of two-dimensional arrays; and miscellaneous commands for iteration, branching, reading, and punching. After one long pass through the machine, an output is produced in the language of another compiler, IT, which is put into a second pass through the 650, and is converted into a fixed form assembly language, SOAP, which is passed through the machine once more. The result, after three passes is a rather inefficient object program. For many problems, it is easier to learn to write machine language or SOAP to develop a faster object program than it is to use this slow, awkward system.

My compiler, SCALP, is faster in compilation, and running time, and is a wider, more comprehensive language, incorporating several additional statement types from the FORTRANS of higher speed computers, as well as all those found in FOR TRANSIT.

An example of a statement used only by SCALP and by compilers from highspeed machines is the provision for inclusion of subroutines written in SCALP and linked to the main program by means of CALL statements. Another important special feature found in SCALP but not in FOR TRANSIT is the ability to work with fixed point numbers that are not necessarily pure integers.

Scalp requires two, rather than three passes through the machine one to convert to SOAP: one to convert to machine language.

In designing SCALP, I decided to sacrifice the free-form input style and to adopt the fixed form pattern shown in Fig. 1 on page 138. This made it possible to design the scanning routine to scan word by word rather than character by character. I also decided to have SCALP convert input statements to machine instructions by using separate subroutines for nonarith-metic statements, and compiling all arithmetic statements as single units. This differs from the method used by FOR TRANSIT (during pass two, the IT phase) which compiles all statements with the same routine. IT's routine scans the statement two characters at a time. Control is then transferred to one of 64 subroutines depending upon which of 200 legal two-character combinations is encountered.

In SCALP, an entire statement is scanned in order to generate the instructions in proper logical sequence. Thus the first instruction produced will start the arithmetic at the logical beginning, not necessarily at the right-hand end of the statement.

Comparative tests in running speed were made between SCALP and FOR TRANSIT using a program for calculating mean and standard deviation, and a program for calculating taxes from a table. The results showed that for the first problem, SCALP compiled three times faster and ran two times faster than FOR TRANSIT, and for the second program, SCALP compiled four times faster, and ran 1.6 times faster than FOR TRANSIT.

SCALP, by virtue of its increased flexibility, wider range of statements, decreased compilation time, and decreased running time, has been shown to be a highly desirable compiler for the medium speed IBM 650, and is said by IBM experts to surpass all previous compilers for this machine.

I plan to continue elaboration of SCALP in order to develop still further improvements over the slower FOR TRANSIT. More speed tests will be conducted with different types of problems, some of them employing the CALL statement found in SCALP but not in FOR TRANSIT. I shall attempt to make similar improvements on the compilers used with the newer, faster, IBM 1620. Robert E. Strom

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